Engaging Bystanders to Prevent Sexual Violence Research brief This document highlights research on bystander intervention approaches to sexual violence prevention. Advocates and preventionists can use this material in their work to create, implement, and improve programming in their communities. The findings are consistent with recently published research that provides evidence for the promise of a bystander approach to address sexual violence to change attitudes and increase engaged bystander behaviors. However, no data are available to address the efficacy of bystander interventions to reduce sexual violence. These articles were selected for review because they represent the most recent research. Ahrens, C. E., Rich, M. D., & Ullman, J. B. (2011). Rehearsing for real life: The impact of the interACT Sexual Assault Prevention Program on self-reported likelihood of engaging in bystander interventions. Violence Against Women, 17, 760- 776. doi:10.1177/1077801211410212 Aims: The authors of this study sought to determine if the interACT Sexual Assault Prevention Program was effective in increasing participants’ self-reported bystander intervention behaviors. InterACT is an interactive, theater-based sexual violence prevention program in which trained students engage the audience. During part of the performance, the audience members are invited to call out suggestions on how they would respond and be an engaged bystander to prevent a rape from occurring. Methods: A total of 509 undergraduate college students from two communication studies classes participated in this study. Students were able to receive course credit by participating in the program and completing three surveys. The students completed a pretest prior to viewing the interACT performance and a post-test in the next class after participating in the program. A follow-up survey was administered to the students at the end of the semester, and three months after the performance, to assess longer-term effects. Key Results: • After participating in the pro­gram, participants’ beliefs about the effectiveness of bystander intervention to prevent rape increased, as did the self-rated likelihood that participants would engage in bystander behaviors. • There were no significant changes in the perception of the personal benefits of engaging in bystander behavior. • Over time, the self-reported likelihood of engaging in bystander interventions increased for participants who indicated lower initial beliefs about the helpfulness of bystander intervention. • Over time, the self-reported likelihood of engaging in bystander interventions leveled off for participants who indicated that they initially believed that bystander interventions were helpful. Summary: Participants’ self-reported likelihood of engaging in bystander interventions did significantly increase over time. The authors found that while there were significant increases in participants’ ratings of the helpfulness of bystander interventions in preventing rape, there were no significant changes in their perceptions of the personal benefits of engaging in bystander interventions. Application: Advocates and preventionists can utilize the information from this study to learn more about the interACT program and see if this would be effective in their own communities or if a similar program could be customized to meet their own communities’ needs. By utilizing the theater aspect of the program, advocates and preventionists can reach and partner with allies — such as the theater community — who might not have reached out to in the past, to promote sexual violence prevention in the community. This study also highlights how bystander intervention programs could work differently for different people. This highlights the need for bystander intervention programing that is informed by the specific needs of the community or audience. Future Research Needs: Future research is needed to reveal different ways participants can become actively involved in performance-based learning approaches to bystander intervention. Research should also focus on whether or not the size and gender composition of the audience has an effect on the effectiveness of the program. Additional research should identify if these types of interactive programs could be adapted and if they are effective in settings other than schools, such as in the workplace, at church, and in other community settings. Future research also could examine the factors that increase an individual’s sense of the personal benefits of bystander intervention. Banyard, V. L., Plante, E., G., & Moynihan, M., M. (2004). Bystander education: Bringing a broader community perspective to sexual violence prevention. Journal of Community Psychology, 32, 61-79. doi:10.1002/jcop.10078 Aims: The authors review existing evidence regarding the effectiveness of sexual violence prevention to understand whether sexual violence prevention education efforts result in positive outcomes for community awareness and change, and to develop a theoretical model for effective sexual violence prevention and bystander intervention efforts. Methods: This article reviews existing research on sexual violence prevention strategies, with emphasis on efforts that incorporate bystander intervention content and community-level change. The authors then propose a theoretical model for sexual violence prevention focused on increasing community acceptance of prevention efforts, particularly bystander intervention behaviors. Key Results: • Literature suggests that a problem with some sexual violence prevention programs lies in their emphasis on individuals or targeted groups, rather than on communities. A challenge confronting community-oriented prevention efforts is a lack of community receptivity to prevention messaging. • Bystanders are more likely to perform pro-social intervention behaviors when they understand sexual violence and its harmful effects on survivors. • Bystanders are more likely to intervene in situ­ations where negative “costs” of action are reduced. • Bystanders are more likely to intervene when they reject victim-blaming attitudes, possess intervention skills, and see others mod­eling bystander intervention behaviors. • Sexual violence prevention programs with bystander intervention content can provide an avenue toward community change. Educators can present prevention programs in the context of community responsibility, encourage empowering community climates, and remind communities that all members have a role to play in addressing sexual violence. Summary: Sexual violence prevention education programs present a unique opportunity for community change if they incorporate bystander intervention content and encourage community empowerment and collective responsibility. Application: Sexual violence prevention educators can design and implement prevention programs that teach bystander intervention skills, encourage modeling of those skills, educate participants about sexual violence, and emphasize community-level changes. Future Research needs: The authors note that many prevention programs have not been rigorously evaluated, or have been evaluated only with male audiences. Additionally, little is known about the impact of bystander intervention and sexual violence prevention efforts on sexual violence prevalence in targeted communities. Finally, research is needed on exactly what aspects of sexual violence prevention programs with bystander intervention content are effective. Banyard, V. L., Moynihan, M. M., & Plante, E. G.(2007). Sexual violence prevention through bystander education: An experimental evaluation. Journal of Community Psychology, 35, 463-481. doi:10.1002/jcop.20159 Aims: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a bystander program at a college campus. The study compared students who participated in one of two versions of the program with students who did not participate to measure the difference between the two groups in terms of knowledge and attitudes about sexual assault, efficacy on being an engaged bystander and actual bystander behavior. Methods: Three hundred and eighty-nine undergraduates (217 women and 172 men) were recruited through flyers around campus and a recruitment table at the student union building on campus. Participants completed pretest and post-test questionnaires for the longitudinal phase of the research. Participants were placed into one of three groups: 1. A control group that received no prevention program. Members of this group attended a pretest session and completed the pretest questionnaire and returned a few weeks later to complete the same questionnaire. 2. One-session prevention program group where participants attended one 90-minute prevention program. The program contained basic information on sexual violence, and provided exercises such as role-playing to help participants think about how they would intervene or support a survivor. 3. Three-session prevention program group. Over the course of a week, participants attended three 90-minute sessions of the prevention program. All students who received the prevention program, either in the one- or three-session format, received a booster session two months after the prevention program to review and discuss what they remembered from the program. All participants completed post-test questionnaires immediately after the program sessions ended and a two month post-test. Additionally there were four, and 12 month follow-ups with subsets of participating students. Key Results: Participants who took part in either of the two sexual violence prevention programs: • Demonstrated an increased knowledge of sexual violence and decreased rape myth acceptance, compared to control subjects. • Reported increases in bystander behaviors, a stronger sense of bystander efficacy, and increases in pro-social bystander attitudes. • Participants who were in the longer program saw more significant changes than participants in the shorter program. • Results from the follow-up questionnaires show the program’s effects might last longer than other prevention programs. • Results suggest that the program worked equally well for both male and female participants. Summary: The study found that exposure to a sexual violence prevention program with bystander intervention content had positive outcomes among subjects, including increased knowledge of sexual violence, rejection of rape myths, and a stronger sense of bystander efficacy. The bystander intervention program described in this study produced positive results for both male and female participants. Male and female participants demonstrated greater knowledge of sexual assault after completing the program and greater willingness to intervene in situations that could potentially escalate into sexual violence. Applications: This research can assist sexual violence prevention efforts by highlighting effective elements of a bystander intervention curriculum, thus providing a model for future educational programs. The findings suggest that this line of prevention programming is an important area for future study and an aspect of prevention curriculum development that should be further developed. Future Research Needs: The authors observe that research is needed on the impact of bystander intervention efforts on sexual violence prevalence in targeted communities. Additionally, more research is needed on which specific elements of bystander intervention programs are efficacious, and what role constructs such as justice and fairness play in bystander helping behaviors. Long-term, follow-up data on the effectiveness of the program is necessary to determine the lasting impact of the program on engaged bystander behavior. Finally, robust evaluations of programs with diverse audiences would contribute to a greater understanding of bystander intervention efforts. Banyard, V. L., & Moynihan, M. M. (2011). Variation in bystander behavior related to sexual and intimate partner violence prevention: Correlates in a sample of college students. Psychology of Violence, 1, 287-301. doi:10.1037/a0023544 Aims: This study sought to identify common variables among college students who report engaging in bystander intervention in sexually coercive situations. Specifically, the study looked at students’ acceptance of rape myths, sense of bystander efficacy, peer support for sexual coercion, and likelihood of engaging in bystander intervention. Methods: A total of 406 undergraduate students were recruited from the following three groups: fraternity and sororities, athletics, and students living in residential halls. All participating students completed the same survey measuring acceptance of rape myths, sense of bystander efficacy, peer support for sexual coercion, and likelihood of engaging in bystander intervention behaviors. Key Results: • Students who reported engaging in more sexual and intimate partner violence-related bystander intervention were more likely to report a greater sense of responsibility for addressing violence and greater bystander efficacy. • Unexpectedly, students who reported high peer acceptance of sexual coercion and greater acceptance of rape myths also were more likely to report bystander intervention behaviors. • Female respondents were more likely to report engaging in bystander intervention than male respondents. Summary: Students who reported a greater sense of personal responsibility for addressing sexual assault and intimate partner violence, and a strong sense of personal bystander efficacy, were more likely to report engaging in bystander intervention. Applications: These findings can inform sexual violence and intimate partner violence prevention programs that incorporate bystander intervention content. By encouraging a strong sense of bystander efficacy and communal responsibility for violence prevention, programs might be more likely to bring about attitudinal and behavioral change in participants. Future Research Needs: Future research on bystander intervention should focus on objective rather than subjective measures (i.e., peer observation of bystander behavior, coercive behaviors in romantic relationships). Additionally, future research can explore the relationship between bystander behaviors and diverse cultural contexts. Casy, E. A., & Ohler, K. (2012). Being a positive bystander: Male antiviolence allies’ experiences of “stepping up.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27, 62-83. doi:10.1177/0886260511416479 Aims: This study examined how men who had recently become involved in anti-violence work experience and decode bystander opportunities, and the factors they consider when deciding whether or not to intervene in a situation. Methods: Men who were new to anti-violence work were recruited through a national email Listserv, announcements at regional meetings in the Northwest United States, and through referrals from other participants. In order to be eligible for the study, the men had to be at least 18 years old, and had to have joined an “anti-violence against women” organization within the last two years. All 27 participants were interviewed by phone or in person. Key Results: • 74% of the respondents stated they received bystander intervention training. • 22% of the men said that they never intervene when they hear or see problematic behaviors in others. They cited that they did not feel comfortable taking action as a reason for not intervening. • 44% of men stated that they sometimes intervene when they hear or see problematic behaviors of others. • 26% of respondents stated that they intervene most or all of the time when they hear or see problematic behaviors of others. Of the 19 men that reported intervening at least sometimes: • 89% said they have intervened in sexist, homophobic, or rape-supportive language among friends. • 21% talked with a friend of family member who was mistreating or being disrespectful to a partner • 24% stated they stepped into an abusive and potentially violent interaction between a man and a woman. Four of the five men reported that they used a distraction technique in an attempt to diffuse the situation. • Men reported that intervening is challenging and issues around if and when to intervene are complex. Summary: Most of the men who participated in the study reported they have intervened or took some sort of bystander action when they witnessed other men’s problematic behavior. While most men reported they have intervened, only 26% reported consistently intervening in problematic situations. The biggest theme that emerged from the interviews is that intervening and being an engaged bystander is difficult, challenging, and complex. Applications: Preventionists can use this information to improve training for male anti-violence workers and to address the unique needs and concerns of men working in the anti-violence field. This research illustrates the importance of providing opportunities for male volunteers and advocates to practice bystander skills. All staff have an opportunity to be engaged bystanders but, like anyone else, still require practice to feel comfortable and confident as an engaged bystander. Future Research Needs: This study was a small study of mostly white men. Future research would benefit from studying a larger group of men from diverse backgrounds to gain a fuller picture of male involvement in antiviolence work. Other research also could examine if better training methods for new antiviolence workers would benefit them in feeling more comfortable to intervene. Future research could compare anti-violence workers who have been in the movement for more than five years with newer members. This could help shed light on whether men in the movement gain more skills and feel more confident in their abilities the longer that they are involved in anti-violence work. Coker, A. L., Cook-Craig, P. G., Williams, C. M., Fisher, B. S., Clear, E. R, Garcia, L. S., & Hegge, L. M. (2011). Evaluation of Green Dot: An active bystander intervention to reduce sexual violence on college campuses. Violence Against Women, 17, 777-796. doi:10.1177/1077801211410264 Aims: This study examined the association between undergraduate students’ exposure to the Green Dot bystander intervention training, the students’ self-reported rape myth acceptance, and the frequency of active bystander behavior. The Green Dot program encourages active bystander intervention in everyday situations to prevent violence and create a safer community. The program consists of a 50-minute speech on bystander intervention as an aspect of dating and sexual violence prevention. A second component is the training program, Students Educating and Empowering to Develop Safety (SEEDS) program, in which a smaller subset of students learns skills to be proactive bystanders and to influence other students, who will model their good bystander behavior. Methods: 7,945 students were invited to participate in the online survey through mail and email marketing. The study drew data from 2,504 University of Kentucky undergraduate students who completed an online survey. Subjects completed survey questions gauging their acceptance of rape myths and dating violence, self-reported active bystander behaviors, and observed bystander behaviors. Students were asked if they participated in the following three activities: • Listened to a Green Dot speech • Received Students Educating and Empowering to Develop Safety (SEEDS) Training • Volunteered with the Violence Intervention and Prevention (VIP) Center Key Results: • Almost half (47%) of respondents indicated that they had listened to a Green Dot speech at some point during their time at the university. • Respondents who received SEEDS training or reported engagement with VIP demonstrated less acceptance of rape myths and dating violence than students who had not been exposed to either program. • Students who received SEEDS training, reported engagement with VIP, or listened to Green Dot speeches were more likely to: — Report observing active bystander behavior compared to students with no exposure to said programs. — Report engaging in active bystander behavior. • Respondents who received SEEDS training were more likely to report having observed and engaged in active bystander behaviors during the past academic year than respondents who had only listened to a Green Dot speech. No significant differences emerged between respondents with SEEDS training and respondents engaged with VIP in terms of engaging in active bystander behavior. Summary: Findings indicate that just listening to a Green Dot speech might have an effect on increasing the likelihood of students engaging in bystander behaviors. However, students who were SEEDS trained were associated with a reduction in rape myth acceptance and an increase in bystander behaviors. Applications: Green Dot speeches and SEEDS training can serve as effective sexual assault prevention programs for encouraging bystander intervention on college campuses. Local preventionists and violence prevention centers on campuses can encourage colleges and universities to look into the Green Dot program for their own campus community. Future Research Needs: The authors note that additional research is needed on what extent SEEDS training encourages bystander behaviors and sense of efficacy when compared with Green Dot speeches alone. Research also should examine what types of settings and what combination of programing and tools are needed to increase engaged bystander behavior in students. Additional research also could examine the differences between students who work at or volunteer with violence prevention programs on or off campus with those who do not; this could help determine how to create programming that will reach all students. Hollingsworth, C., Ramey, K. J., & Hadley, J. A. (2011). Bystander intervention pilot: Final report. Retrieved from Mentors in Violence Prevention: http://www.mvpnational.org/wp- content/uploads/2011/12/MVP-Navy-BI-Pilot-Final-Report-2011.pdf Aims: The Mentors in Violence Prevention (MVP) program was adapted for test sites in the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps. This report looks at data from those pilot sites to determine if MVP was effective in changing attitudes and beliefs about sexual assault and if the delivery model was effective. Method: Pilot testing was done at the following locations: Hampton Roads, Virginia; Pensacola, Florida; Pearl Harbor and Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii; and Manama, Bahrain. U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine personnel with the following ranks were screened to attend a two-day “train the trainer” workshop to prepare them to deliver the MVP program to selected members in their command and to become a Command Trainer: Petty Officer 2nd class, Petty Officer 1st Class, Chief Petty Officer, Sergeant, Staff Sergeant, and Gunnery Sergeant. Command Trainers were instructed to train selected members in three 90-minute sessions, with four to seven days in between each session. A total of 2,819 military personnel were trained, the sailors and Marines were trained in small groups of 10 to 15 people, and were separated by gender whenever possible. Trainees were divided into two groups: those who received the training and those who did not. Trainees completed an in-person pretest survey and online post-test surveys immediately after the training and three months after completion of the training. Key Results: • Based on survey data and feedback from trainees, the MVP training had some measure of impact on all participating ranks in all training environments. • The most effective environment in which to train was found to be a nontraditional military training environment with a more relaxed format that promoted open discussion among trainees. • All pay grades showed positive response to bystander training. Based on study results, lower pay grades (E3 and below) had a much more positive response to the bystander intervention training, which helps confirm early training maximizes impact. • There is some evidence, from post-test surveys and anecdotal feedback, that suggests that the bystander training positively impacted personnel conduct in some instances. While not statistically significant, of the 200 post-test surveys that were received, 17 respondents indicated that they used the skills they learned to intervene in at least one sexual assault case. Summary: While all personnel exhibited some positive improvement, these findings suggest that it is important to train personnel as early as possible to maximize the impact of the bystander training and in a more relaxed setting that encourages discussion among participants. Applications: In light of the number of sexual assaults that take place in the military, this information also can be used to advocate for additional programing within the armed services. Preventionists can use this information to advocate for continued bystander programming in other branches of military and to collaborate with military personnel and advocate for training earlier in a person’s military career, since this is where the most change is seen. Future Research Needs: Additional research can look at the best mode of delivery of a bystander intervention program in military installations. Research also examine what effective tools for bystander training programs in higher pay grades. Another important research need is to examine if follow-up booster sessions are necessary to maintain a positive effect on bystander behavior. Research also can compare the effectiveness of bystander training among branches of military, since one method might not work for all branches. Miller, E., Tancredi, D. J., McCauley, H. L., Decker, M. R., Virata, M. C. D., Anderson, H. A. … Silverman, J. G. (2012). Coaching boys into men: A cluster-randomized controlled trial of a dating violence prevention program. Journal of Adolescent Health, 51, 431-438. doi:10.1016/j. jadohealth.2012.01.018 Aims: In this study, dating violence included physical, sexual and psychological aggression in adolescent romantic relationships. Few prevention programs on dating violence have demonstrated effectiveness. This study aimed to test the effectiveness of the dating violence prevention program Coaching Boys into Men, which targeted coaches and male athletes in high school. Method: Male athletes from 16 high schools in urban Sacramento County, California, participated in the study. Coaches attended a 60-minute training by a violence prevention advocate, who showed them how to use the “Coaches Kit.” The kit contained training cards that coaches could use as a guide to lead a brief weekly discussion on violence against women. Online surveys were then collected from 1,008 students in schools participating in the program, and from 998 students from schools not participating in the program, which acted as a control group. Students completed a pretest at the start of the sports season, and a follow-up survey at the end of program’s implementation (about 12 weeks after the first survey). Students were surveyed on their recognition of abusive behavior, gender attitudes, and intentions to intervene when witnessing abusive behavior, as well as bystander behavior and abuse perpetration. Key Results: • Male high school athletes who participated in the program had increased intentions to intervene and more positive bystander behavior. • Compared with participants who received the program, control athletes’ mean scores of intentions to intervene worsened somewhat over time. • The program did not demonstrate a significant effect on gender equitable attitudes. Summary: Results indicate the effectiveness of the school athletics-based prevention program to recognize abuse, increase intentions to intervene, and increase bystander behavior. The Coaching Boys into Men prevention program is a promising program for teen dating violence prevention. Despite program limitations in instituting the program at the school level, in terms of time and resources, there were positive shifts in bystander behavior. Application: This research shows the effective­ness of a promising program for teen dating violence prevention in high school. Preventionists can use this information to support their work in high schools and while working with male athletes. Advocates and preventionists could work with schools to incorporate this program, or similar programs, in after-school activities to help improve students’ understanding of violence against women and increase intentions to intervene. Future Research Needs: Future research should study the effect of dating violence prevention programs on female athletes, as well as non-athletes, and in other after-school activities and programs. Research also could look at the effectiveness of violence prevention programs geared toward middle school students. Parrott, D. J., Tharp, A. T., Swartout, K. M., Miller, C. A., Hall, G. C. N., & George, W. H. (2012). Validity for an integrated laboratory analogue of sexual aggression and bystander intervention. Aggressive Behavior, 38, 309-321. doi:10.1002/ab.21429 Aims: This study created a methodology to measure sexual aggression and bystander intervention. The study also examined the association between bystander behaviors and the occurrence of sexual aggression by examining if a male peer can effectively convince his friend not to expose a female to an unwanted sexual experience. The authors attempted to measure if the male peer influenced the other man in the pair to not show a sexual video to a non-consenting woman. Methods: Heterosexual males between 21 and 35 years old, who drank at least three drinks per occasion twice per month, were selected to complete the study. Through advertisements on the Internet, men were recruited from the metro Atlanta area and asked to select a close male peer to participate in the study with them. Both participants had to meet the eligibility requirements. The total sample size for the study was 156 men. Each man in the pair was given a questionnaire to determine his behavior and views on the following: sexual aggression, nonconsensual sex, sexism, hostility toward women, and bystander efficacy. The men were asked to view video clips and decide which one to show a female who reported a strong dislike of sexual content in the media. One video clip had a sexual component to it and the other did not. Each man was asked to pick his selection individually, then each pair was asked to come together and, as a team, determine which video clip to show the female. Higher levels of bystander efficacy would be perceived if one man intervened to prevent his peer from showing the woman the sexually explicit video clip. Key Results: • Participants with a one-year history of sexual aggression and endorsed misogynistic attitudes were significantly more likely to pick the sexually explicit video to show to the woman. • Bystander efficacy significantly predicted successful prevention of their male peer’s intent to show the sexually explicit video to the woman. • The perceived benefits of intervening did not significantly predict a positive change in the partner’s video choice. Summary: Men with a history of sexual aggression who endorse misogynistic attitudes are more likely to choose sexually explicit material to show a non-consenting woman. This study illustrates that fostering men’s ability and willingness to intervene in situations where sexual aggression is likely to occur is a critical component to bystander intervention programming. Application: This research supports the importance of the influence of peers on social norms. Advocates and preventionists can use this information in working with men to prevent sexual violence and become active bystanders in sexual violence prevention. Future Research Needs: The current research focused on pairs of peers. Future research should look at non-peer pairs; how men interact with non-peers. Future research can focus on existing bystander programs and examine their effect on behavior in an experimental setting to see if actual behavior has changed. This will contribute to bystander intervention research and can help support the effectiveness of such programs. Potter, S. J., Moynihan, M. M., Stapleton, J. G., & Banyard, V. L. (2009). Empowering bystanders to prevent campus violence against women: a preliminary evaluation of a poster campaign. Violence Against Women, 15, 106-121. doi:10.1177/1077801208327482 Aims: This study sought to evaluate a college campus poster campaign promoting bystander intervention behaviors as a strategy for addressing violence against women. Specifically, the study sought to determine whether posters emphasizing communal responsibility for violence against women and the importance of bystander intervention would impact student attitudes about sexual violence on campus. Methods: For four weeks, posters were hung in 285 campus sites and 65 off-campus sites frequented by students. Following the poster campaign, 372 undergraduate students completed an online survey about sexual violence on campus. The survey gauged students’ sense of responsibility surrounding campus sexual assault, willingness to learn more about the problem, and degree of activity in anti-sexual violence initiatives. Key Results: • Overall, 78% of respondents reported seeing the posters. Out of the 291 respondents who reported seeing the posters, 76% reported seeing them at least once a day, 12% reported seeing them several times a week, and 12% reported seeing them once a week or less. Compared with students who did not see the posters, students who saw the posters were more likely to: • Demonstrate awareness of sexual violence. • Get involved in initiatives addressing violence against women and sexual assault. Summary: The study found that posters promoting bystander intervention and communal responsibility for violence against women can be an effective part of sexual violence prevention efforts. Specifically, such posters can raise awareness of sexual violence and can encourage viewers to take active roles in sexual violence prevention. Application: Posters and related media can raise awareness about sexual violence among campus populations, but it also should augment in-person prevention programming. Future Research Needs: Future research can explore the role of other media (i.e., public service announcements, social networking) alongside posters in educating audiences about sexual violence. More work is needed The articles presented in this research brief add to the rich body of research on bystander intervention. However, there is more work that needs to be done. Future research on bystander intervention that takes into account diverse cultural contexts and diverse settings (i.e., workplace, faith communities, and public spaces) can enrich the body of research on this subject. Furthering the positive impact and effectiveness of such prevention initiatives requires ongoing examination of variability in bystander intervention behaviors and explanations for such differences in the specific context of sexual violence. For more information, contact the National Sexual Violence Resource Center at 877-739-3895 or visit http://tinyurl.com/ofrw5v2. © National Sexual Violence Resource Center 2013. All rights reserved. This document was supported by Cooperative Agreement #1H28CE002205-01 from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Its contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of the CDC.