Housing, Homelessness, and Sexual Violence
Annotated Bibliography

This annotated bibliography highlights research articles documenting studies 
on the relationship between sexual violence, housing, and homelessness. 
The bibliography summarizes studies published between 2010 – 2020 on sexual 
violence experienced at different stages of the lifespan by people who have 
experienced homelessness or housing instability. Current research suggests 
that people who have experienced homelessness are at an increased risk for 
experiencing sexual violence, and that sexual violence is a risk factor for 
homelessness and housing instability. The research findings illustrate the 
importance of service providers understanding the connections between sexual 
violence and housing instability, and the importance of screening for 
sexual violence.

I. General

Asberg, K., & Renk, K. (2015). Safer in jail? A comparison of victimization 
history and psychological adjustment between previously homeless and non-homeless 
incarcerated women. Feminist Criminology, 10(2), 165–187. 
https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085114537870

This study of 169 women (ages 18–62 years) in a large county jail in Florida found 
that those who were homeless prior to incarceration (versus those who were not) 
were more likely to have experienced childhood molestation (64.4%), attempted 
fondling (64.4%), adult sexual assault (74.6%), arrests for prostitution (40.7%), 
and to have been treated for substance misuse (70.9%). Previously homeless women 
also reported more experiences of sexual coercion and violence than non-homeless 
women. Overall, 39% were homeless, living in a shelter, or living in temporary 
housing such as a motel room prior to incarceration. This included one in 
four participants (24.5%) who reported that they were homeless, 2.8% who 
indicated they were living in a shelter, and 11.3% who were living temporarily 
in a motel room prior to incarceration.

Breiding, M., Basile, K. C., Klevens, J., & Smith, S. G. (2017). Economic 
insecurity and intimate partner and sexual violence victimization. American 
Journal of Preventive Medicine, 53(4), 457–464. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2017.03.021

Using data from the 2010 National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey 
(NISVS), a nationally representative survey of U.S. adults, researchers found 
connections between food and housing insecurity for both women and men and 
experiencing intimate partner and sexual violence in the 12 months prior to 
the survey. The prevalence of housing insecurity in the 12 months prior to the 
survey was 46.3% for women and 40.5% for men. Women reporting recent housing 
insecurity were significantly more likely than women who did not report recent 
housing insecurity to experience all forms of intimate partner violence (IPV) 
(physical violence, contact sexual violence, stalking, psychological aggression, 
and/or control of reproductive or sexual health). Men reporting recent housing 
insecurity were also significantly more likely to experience all forms of 
intimate partner violence, except stalking. Women and men reporting recent 
housing or food insecurity were also significantly more likely to experience 
contact sexual violence and noncontact unwanted sexual experiences compared 
with women and men who did not report recent housing or food insecurity. 
The study also found that those who reported food and housing insecurity were 
more likely to experience sexual violence by someone other than an intimate 
partner, suggesting that those experiencing economic insecurity are at a higher 
risk for experiencing sexual violence.

Cronley, C., Cimino, A. N., Hohn, K., Davis, J., & Madden, E. (2016). Entering 
prostitution in adolescence: History of youth homelessness predicts earlier entry. 
Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 25(9), 893–908. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2016.1223246

A study of 96 adult women who self-identified as having engaged in prostitution 
found that women with a history of youth homelessness entered prostitution 
almost eight years earlier than women who engaged in prostitution without a 
history of youth homelessness. About half of the respondents participated in 
multiple forms of prostitution, and 40% traded sex for things (survival sex). 
Almost 28% of the women experienced homelessness before the age of 18, and 
over 80% experienced sexual abuse before the age of 18.

Deck, S. M., & Platt, P. S. (2015). Homelessness is traumatic: Abuse, 
victimization, and trauma histories of homeless men. Journal of Aggression, 
Maltreatment & Trauma, 24(9), 1022–1043. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2015.1074134

This study of 152 men experiencing homelessness examined their experiences of 
trauma. Most participants (89.2%) had been incarcerated, and almost half 
(45.2%) reported having experienced one or more forms of abuse in their lifetime 
(35.9% for emotional abuse, 25.8% for physical abuse, and 11.2% for sexual abuse). 
The residents at the male-only homeless shelter responded to interview questions 
that suggested 23 to 30% screened positive for PTSD. Those who screened 
positive for PTSD had been homeless longer and were more likely to experience 
chronic homelessness. They were also more likely to be veterans and to report 
violent attacks, abuse histories, and mental health problems. This study 
illustrates the need for trauma-informed housing services.

Huey, L. (2016). There is no strength in emotions: The role of street enculturation 
in influencing how victimized homeless women speak about violence. Journal of 
Interpersonal Violence, 31(10), 1817–1841. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515570749

This study of 76 in-depth interviews of women staying in homeless shelters or 
transitional housing in Los Angeles found that women displayed varying attitudes 
toward violence they had experienced, violence they witnessed living on the 
street, and/or the violence they committed against others. Women who initially 
spoke of violence in a very casual, dismissive way eventually revealed they 
did so to put on a tough front. Over half of women experienced intimate 
partner violence (67%), 50% of women experienced sexual assault, 51% of 
women witnessed significant violence, and 41% experienced non-partner physical 
violence. Women were asked about childhood experiences as well; 43% experienced 
physical abuse in childhood, 51% experienced childhood sexual abuse, and 55% 
witnessed significant violence as a child. Most women acknowledged feeling 
traumatized by the violence they experienced.

Jayasundara, D. S., Legerski, E. M., Danis, F. S., & Ruddell, R. (2018). Oil 
development and intimate partner violence: Implementation of Section 8 housing 
policies in the Bakken region of North Dakota and Montana. Journal of 
Interpersonal Violence, 33(21), 3388–3416. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518798359

This study explores the impact of oil development on domestic violence, dating 
violence, sexual assault, and stalking in 33 counties in the Bakken region of 
North Dakota and Montana. Through policy and qualitative data analysis of interviews 
and focus groups with community members, researchers assessed intimate partner 
violence in these communities. Data was collected from 185 participants, through 
119 individual interviews and 13 focus groups. Many survivors qualify for public 
housing programs that are vital for survivors fleeing abuse; however, many 
survivors in the Bakken region had a difficult time accessing affordable housing. 
Many service providers were unaware of the provisions for survivors in the 2013 
reauthorization of the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA). Eligibility restrictions 
prevented some from utilizing public housing programs, and some landlords 
opted out of Section 8 program participation at the height of the oil boom. 
Housing shortages in boom towns1 led to housing inflation, and the lack of 
affordable housing options increased the vulnerability for survivors. Findings 
illustrate the importance of federal, state, and local housing protections 
for boom towns. 
1Boom town: "a small town that grows quickly as a result of a sudden increase 
in local economic activity." Boom town. (n.d.). In Cambridge Advanced Learner's 
Dictionary & Thesaurus. Cambridge University Press. 
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/boom-town 

Meinbresse, M., Brinkley-Rubinstein, L., Grassette, A., Benson, J., Hall, C., 
Hamilton, R., Malott, M., & Jenkins, D. (2014). Exploring the experiences of 
violence among individuals who are homeless using a consumer-led approach. 
Violence and Victims, 29(1), 122–136. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-12-00069

Homelessness makes a person more vulnerable to violent victimization. This 
study of 500 people who were experiencing homelessness in five cities across 
the United States explored the prevalence and characteristics associated with 
violent victimization among people who are homeless. Sixty-two percent of 
respondents reported witnessing a violent attack on another person who was 
homeless, and nearly one half (49%) of the sample reported experiencing 
violence. Being homeless for longer than two years and being older increased 
the risk of experiencing a violent attack. About 15% of respondents were 
raped or sexually assaulted. Increased length of homelessness and being 
female predicted experiencing rape. This study found that 21% of female 
victims knew the person who raped them. Forty-six percent of the victims 
sought help after their most recent attack. Sixty-eight percent of those 
who sought and received help were unable to pay the associated medical bills. 
Only 14% of the victims were aware of the Crime Victims Fund, and 9% had 
actually tried to receive funds — none were successful in receiving funds. 
Findings suggest those who provide services to people experiencing homelessness 
be prepared to connect victims to medical care and mental health services.

Oliveri, R. C. (2018). Sexual harassment of low-income women in housing: 
Pilot study results. Missouri Law Review, 83(3), 597–640. University of 
Missouri School of Law. 
https://scholarship.law.missouri.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4338&context=mlr

This study looks at sexual harassment and exploitation of low-income women 
by their landlords in private rental housing. A pilot study of 100 low-income 
women randomly selected from clients of the Columbia, Missouri, Housing Authority 
found that 16 (16%) indicated they had experienced some type of sexual harassment 
or other problematic sexual behavior (that would not meet the legal standard 
for sexual harassment) while 10 (10%) indicated they had experienced sexual 
harassment. Of the women who reported experiencing sexual harassment, 90% 
(9 out of 10) were women of color, were young (average age was 27.6), and 
were low-income or had no source of income at all. Only one woman attempted 
to report the abuse to police after her landlord repeatedly asked for sex 
in lieu of rent and came into her apartment uninvited. The police interviewed 
the woman but did not take further action. All women who experienced sexual 
harassment reported negative emotions at the time of the harassment. 

Wilder Research. (2016). Homelessness in Minnesota: Findings from the 2015 
Minnesota Homeless Study. Wilder Research. http://mnhomeless.org/minnesota-
homeless-study/reports-and-fact-sheets/2015/2015-homelessness-in-minnesota-11-16.pdf

The Minnesota Homeless Study is a comprehensive study of people who are 
experiencing homelessness: adults, youth, and children in the state. The most 
recent study from 2015 included 3,672 in-person interviews with adults and 
unaccompanied youth. Interviews were also conducted in Spanish (25), Somali 
(15), and in Hmong (2). An estimated 40,000 people in Minnesota experienced 
homelessness in 2015. Children and youth under age 24, African Americans, 
and American Indians are most likely to be homeless in Minnesota. 
Experiencing violence is common for people who lack housing; 35% of 
women who are homeless are homeless as a result of domestic violence. 
One in five (19%) homeless adults reported being physically or sexually 
assaulted while homeless. Twenty-five percent of adults who are homeless 
experienced sexual abuse as a child (36% for women vs. 14% for men). 
Among homeless youth, 14% have engaged in survival sex (14% for female 
youth and 15% for male youth), and 21% had been physically or sexually 
attacked while homeless (21% for female youth vs. 15% for male youth).

Wong, L. H., Shumway, M., Flentje, A., & Riley, E. D. (2014). Multiple 
types of childhood and adult violence among homeless and unstably housed 
women in San Francisco. Violence and Victims, 31(6), 1171–1182. 
https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-15-00132

This study looked at the relationship between different forms of childhood 
violence (emotional, physical, and sexual) and violence experienced in 
adulthood using a survey of 298 homeless and unstably housed women in 
San Francisco, CA. Since age 18, participants reported the average time 
of homelessness was six years. Of the women surveyed, 58% of participants 
reported engaging in transactional sex, 72% reported spending time in jail, 
61% had an alcohol disorder, and 75% had a drug disorder. More than 70% of 
homeless and unstably housed women in this sample experienced childhood 
violence, and 78% had experienced violence in adulthood. The majority 
of women (62.4%) reported both childhood and adult victimization. 
Almost 32% reported experiencing childhood sexual abuse, and almost 
40% reported experiencing adult sexual victimization. Results 
indicated that experiencing specific types of violence in childhood 
such as sexual violence predicted experiencing the same types of 
violence in adulthood. The odds of experiencing adult sexual victimization 
were almost five times higher among women who also reported childhood 
sexual abuse. 

II. Advocacy

Hopper, E. K., Bassuk, E. L., & Olivet, J. (2010). Shelter from the storm: 
Trauma-informed care in homelessness services settings. The Open Health 
Services and Policy Journal, 3, 80–100. Bentham Open. 
https://benthamopen.com/contents/pdf/TOHSPJ/TOHSPJ-3-80.pdf

Many people experiencing homelessness have been exposed to trauma. Homeless 
services have traditionally provided services without acknowledging the 
trauma people who are homeless have experienced. Trauma-informed care is 
a framework for providing services to people while recognizing the 
impact of trauma they may have experienced. This article highlights 
the components of trauma-informed service delivery, conducting needs 
assessments, and implementing trauma-informed services. The article 
reviewed needs assessments of agencies serving people experiencing 
homelessness. Researchers found that providers feel they need to be 
better informed about trauma and violence, many providers do not have 
a process or systematic way of assessing for trauma, people served want 
services that are empowering, and mental health services are an important 
need for many people experiencing homelessness. Promising models of 
trauma-informed services in homeless service settings are also highlighted.

Huey, L., Broll, R., Hryniewicz, D., & Fthenos, G. (2014). "They just asked 
me why I became homeless": "Failure to ask" as a barrier to homeless women's 
ability to access services post-victimization. Violence and Victims, 29(6), 
952–966. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-12-00121

Homeless shelter workers are in a position to help women who are homeless 
and who have experienced violence; however, women are rarely asked about 
their experiences of violent victimization and its effects. This article 
discusses findings from 42 interviews with victimized homeless women in 
Chicago and Detroit. Most women interviewed (31) reported being physically 
or sexually assaulted by a partner, 28 reported having experienced physical 
assault in childhood, and 22 reported experiencing childhood sexual abuse. 
Of those experiencing childhood sexual abuse, most women reported having 
been victimized by a family member such as an uncle, stepfather, brother, 
or cousin. Eighteen participants reported experiencing sexual assault as 
an adult, and 16 reported physical assault by a non-intimate partner. 
Women who are homeless face many barriers to receiving services after 
victimization such as lack of financial means, transportation, and 
knowledge of available services. Only nine of the 42 women interviewed 
were asked about their experiences of violent victimization by shelter 
staff, and five of those nine had been specifically asked about intimate 
partner violence and not other forms of physical and sexual violence. 
Authors provide practical recommendations for improving victims’ access 
to services.

Mostajabian, S., Maria, D. S., Wiemann, C., Newlin, E., & Bocchini, 
C. (2019). Identifying sexual and labor exploitation among sheltered 
youth experiencing homelessness: A comparison of screening methods. 
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 
16(3), 363. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16030363

Youth who are unstably housed or homeless are more vulnerable to 
human trafficking. This study looked at two tools, a standard 
psychosocial assessment tool and a human trafficking-specific 
assessment tool, to determine which was more effective in 
identifying human trafficking among youth. Findings indicate 
that the tool developed specifically to address human trafficking 
was more likely to identify youth experiencing sexual and labor 
exploitation and risk factors for human trafficking. Youth reported 
mistrusting the system, fear of involving the police, not wanting 
to interact with mental health care systems, and stigma as barriers 
they face for disclosing human trafficking. Health care providers 
caring for youth experiencing homelessness should adopt improved 
screening tools.

III. Housing After Conviction

Levenson, J. S. (2018). Hidden challenges: Sex offenders legislated 
into homelessness. Journal of Social Work, 18(3), 348–363. 
https://doi.org/10.1177/1468017316654811

Zoning laws prevent sex offenders from living within close proximity 
to schools and other places where children gather. In many communities, 
there are few housing options for people convicted of sex crimes, 
causing them to become homeless. This article provides a brief 
history of residence restriction laws, research around their 
effectiveness, and recommendations for reform. Residence restriction 
laws do little to prevent recidivism of sexual violence, and may 
undermine factors shown by research to be associated with reentry 
into the community and reducing recidivism.

Rolfe, S. M., Tewksbury, R., & Schroeder, R. D. (2016). Homeless 
shelters' policies on sex offenders: Is this another collateral 
consequence? International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative 
Criminology, 61(16), 1833–1849. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X16638463

Sex offender registration and notification and residence restrictions 
can cause many reentry barriers for people who have committed sex offenses. 
These laws have affected their ability to find and maintain housing and 
employment, and many may become homeless. This study looks at the policies 
of 57 homeless shelters on housing registered sex offenders. Sixteen of 
the 57 shelters accepted registered sex offenders (28.1%), and 41 shelters 
(71.9%) did not. Being located near schools or homes with children 
decreases the odds that homeless shelters will allow registered sex 
offenders. The study also found that, while many shelters were willing 
to make exceptions to other policies regarding accessibility, they were 
not willing to make exceptions for people who are registered sex offenders. 
This study highlights the limited access to homeless shelters for 
registered sex offenders. 

Socia, K. M., Dum, C. P., & Rydberg, J. (2019). Turning a blind eye: 
Public support of emergency housing policies for sex offenders. Sexual 
Abuse, 31(1), 25–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063217720925

In a national online survey, 773 citizens responded to questions about 
the living conditions of sex offenders residing at an emergency shelter 
budget motel. Online survey respondents were asked about their support 
for four different policy scenarios that promote or hinder access to 
safe housing for people who have been convicted of sex offenses. Survey 
respondents were typically indifferent to policies that would improve 
sex offender housing conditions regardless of how the proposed policy 
would affect the respondent.

IV. Mental Health

Rattelade, S., Farrell, S., Aubry, T., & Klodawsky, F. (2014). The 
relationship between victimization and mental health functioning in 
homeless youth and adults. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29(9), 
1606–1622. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260513511529

This study explored the connection between childhood victimization 
and current mental health among homeless youth and adults. Three 
hundred and four homeless adolescents and adults were interviewed. 
Researchers found high rates of childhood sexual abuse among homeless 
girls and women. Forty-three percent of adult women and 42% of 
female youth reported experiencing childhood sexual abuse. Eighteen 
percent of adult men and 12% of male youth reported experiencing 
child sexual abuse. High rates of childhood physical abuse and 
witnessing family abuse were also reported from both male and 
female participants at all ages. Experiencing childhood sexual 
abuse and witnessing family violence were correlated with lower 
mental health scores. Findings indicate the need for service 
providers to be trained to understand childhood trauma.

Riley, E. D., Cohen, J., Knight, K. R., Decker, A., Marson, K., 
& Shumway, M. (2014). Recent violence in a community-based sample 
of homeless and unstably housed women with high levels of 
psychiatric comorbidity. American Journal of Public Health, 
104(9), 1657–1663. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.301958

In a study of 291 homeless or unstably housed women, 97% screened 
positive for one or more psychiatric conditions, 90% met criteria 
for at least one mental health disorder, 85% met the criteria for 
at least one substance-related disorder, and 78% met the criteria 
for both mental health and substance-related disorders. Women 
reported experiencing most violence from non-intimate partners — 
of women who experienced sexual violence, seven percent were assaulted 
by an intimate partner and 22% by non-intimate partners. Finding 
that most violence was perpetrated by a non-intimate partner 
suggests that health care and other service providers may miss 
violence if they only screen for domestic or intimate partner 
violence. The authors suggest screening people for all forms 
of violence.

Tsai, A. C., Weiser, S. D., Dilworth, S. E., Shumway, M., & Riley, 
E. D. (2015). Violent victimization, mental health, and service 
utilization outcomes in a cohort of homeless and unstably housed 
women living with or at risk of becoming infected with HIV. 
American Journal of Epidemiology, 181(10), 817–826. 
https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwu350

In a study using data from the Shelter, Health, and Drug Outcomes 
Among Women Study on 300 homeless or unstably housed women 
infected with or at risk of becoming infected with HIV living 
in San Francisco, CA, researchers looked at the association between 
exposure to violence and mental health. Researchers found 207 
women (69%) experienced child abuse. Revictimization was common: 
62% reported a history of violence in both childhood and 
adulthood, and only 15% reported a history of violence during 
adulthood but not childhood. Recent exposure to violence was 
associated with lower mental health status and higher risks 
of mental health-related emergency department visits and 
psychiatric hospitalizations. Reducing ongoing violence may 
help improve mental health in women experiencing homelessness.

Tyler, K. A., Kort-Butler, L. A., & Swendener, A. (2014). 
The effect of victimization, mental health, and protective 
factors on crime and illicit drug use among homeless young 
adults. Violence and Victims, 29(2), 348–362. 
https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-12-00091R1

Homeless youth typically have histories of victimization prior 
to leaving home and experience victimization when on the street. 
These experiences put them at greater risk for engaging in illegal 
behaviors (i.e. property and violent crimes and drug use). 
Little is known about the protective factors homeless youth may 
have to cope with stress. This study of 172 young adults who 
were homeless or had a history of running away and being homeless 
examined the relationship between various forms of victimization, 
mental health, and protective factors against crime and drug use. 
Forty-seven percent of the youth in the sample had been sexually
abused, 95% had been physically abused, and 78% had been neglected 
at least once. Since being on the street, 39% had been sexually 
victimized, 94% had been physically victimized, and 69% had been 
victimized by their partner at least once. Results from this 
study show that sexual and/or physical street victimization 
are important for understanding involvement in property and/or 
violent crime, and child maltreatment and partner violence 
are important in explaining drug use.

Wong, C. F., Clark, L. F., & Marlotte, L. (2014). The impact of 
specific and complex trauma on the mental health of homeless 
youth. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 31(5), 831–854. 
https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514556770

This study of 389 youth aged 13-25 who have been homeless or 
precariously housed in the past year examined correlations between 
traumatic victimization and mental health symptoms. Respondents 
reported high rates of past and current trauma; about 70% of 
the sample reported growing up in adverse home environments. 
Prior to experiencing homelessness, 58.9% experienced emotional 
abuse/neglect, 51.4% experienced physical abuse, and 33.2% 
experienced childhood sexual abuse. Since becoming homeless, 
37.3% experienced physical assault while on the street, 27.4% 
experienced harassment, 22.5% experienced intimate partner 
violence, and 13% experienced sexual assault while on the 
street. Participants who experienced multiple traumas earlier 
(including sexual abuse) were significantly more likely to 
have higher PTSD scores and were more likely to engage 
in self-injury. 

V. LGBTQ Issues

Choi, S. K., Wilson, B. D., Shelton, J., & Gates, G. (2015). Serving 
our youth 2015: The needs and experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual, 
transgender, and questioning youth experiencing homelessness. 
Williams Institute. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1pd9886n

This report summarizes findings from the 2014 LGBTQ Homeless Youth 
Provider Survey, a survey of 138 homeless youth service providers. 
The most prevalent reason for homelessness among LGBQ (55.3%) and 
transgender youth (67.1%) was being forced out of their home or 
running away because of their sexual identity/expression. 
Housing was the top need of LGBQ youth (26%), followed by 
acceptance/emotional support of sexual orientation or gender 
identity/expression (18.8%) and employment (17.7%). This report found 
that 60% of the LGBQ and 75% of the transgender youth experienced 
physical, emotional, or sexual abuse, and 10% of the LGBQ and 20% 
of the transgender youth experienced sexual exploitation/trafficking.

Ecker, J. (2016). Queer, young, and homeless: A review of the literature. 
Child & Youth Services, 37(4), 325–361. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/0145935X.2016.1151781

This article reviews and analyzes the current literature on queer 
(lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex, questioning, two-spirited) 
homeless youth. The article summarizes the pathways into homelessness 
and the challenges and barriers that homeless queer youth face, 
such as mental health, substance use, sexual victimization, and 
discrimination. Sexual victimization was found to be a common 
occurrence for homeless queer youth both at home and on the streets. 
Survival sex (exchanging sex to meet one’s survival needs) was 
common among homeless queer youth. Results from the review found 
that homeless queer youth are a unique population that requires 
specialized services. The author concludes with practice recommendations, 
policy implications, and ideas for future research.

Morton, M. H., Samuels, G. M., Dworsky, A., & Patel, S. (2018). Missed 
opportunities: LGBTQ youth homelessness in America. Voices of Youth Count. 
https://voicesofyouthcount.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/
VoYC-LGBTQ-Brief-Chapin-Hall-2018.pdf

This research brief highlights research related to the experiences 
of young people ages 18 to 25 who identify as LGBTQ and who are homeless.
 Voices of Youth Count is a nationally representative phone survey that 
asks people about their self-reported experiences of youth homelessness 
or the experiences of youth in their household. LGBTQ youth are at 
2.2 times the risk of reporting homelessness compared to other groups. 
Youth who are Black and LGBTQ reported the highest rates of homelessness 
at 16%. LGBTQ youth who are homeless reported higher rates of trauma 
and adversity than non-LGBTQ homeless peers. LGBTQ youth who were 
homeless were more likely to report exchanging sex for basic needs 
(27% vs. 9% of non-LGBTQ homeless youth), and 38% of LGBTQ homeless 
youth reported being forced to have sex vs. 15% of non-LGBTQ homeless 
youth. Research showed that most LGBTQ youth became homeless as a result 
of family instability and frayed relationships over time and not in the 
aftermath of “coming out.” The brief provides practical recommendations 
on serving LGBTQ youth.  

VI. Veterans

Brignone, E., Gundlapalli, A. V., Blais, R. K., Carter, M. E., Suo, 
Y., Samore, M. H., Kimberling, R., & Fargo, J. D. (2016). Differential 
risk for homelessness among US male and female veterans with a positive 
screen for military sexual trauma. JAMA Psychiatry, 73(6), 582–589. 
https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.0101

This study of U.S. veterans on the connections between military sexual 
trauma (MST) and post-deployment homelessness found that among veterans 
with a positive screen for MST, the rates of homelessness were 1.6% 
within 30 days, 4.4% within one year, and 9.6% within five years. 
This is more than double the rates of homelessness in veterans with 
a negative MST screen (.7% within 30 days, 1.8% within one year, 
and 4.3% within five years). Male veterans who experienced MST were 
found to be at a greater risk for homelessness than female veterans 
who experienced MST.

Tsai, J., Rosenheck, R. A., Decker, S. E., Desai, R. A., & 
Harpaz-Rotem, I. (2012). Trauma experience among homeless female 
veterans: Correlates and impact on housing, clinical, and psychosocial 
outcomes. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 25(6), 624–632. 
https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21750

This study examined the lifetime exposure to traumatic events as 
reported by 581 female veterans enrolled in a Homeless Women Veterans 
Program. Almost all participants (99%) reported experiencing at least 
one traumatic event and multiple types and occurrences of traumatic 
events. Eighty-two percent of the women reported that someone close to 
them experienced a serious or life-threatening illness, and 67% of the 
women experienced rape. Trauma from sexual assault was associated with 
more days spent experiencing homelessness. Of those who reported 
experiencing rape, 32% reported the trauma was inflicted by a family 
member, and 42% reported it occurred in the military.   

VII. Youth

Bender, K., Brown, S. M., Thompson, S. J., Ferguson, K. M., & Langenderfer, 
L. (2015). Multiple victimizations before and after leaving home associated 
with PTSD, depression, and substance use disorder among homeless youth.
 Child Maltreatment, 20(2), 115–124. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559514562859

In a study of 601 homeless youth, 79% reported experiencing multiple forms 
of childhood abuse prior to leaving home, and 28% reported multiple street 
victimizations. Thirty-four percent of the sample reported experiencing 
childhood sexual abuse, and 21% experienced sexual assault on the street. 
Each additional type of street victimization almost doubled a youth’s 
odds of meeting the criteria for a substance use disorder, and each 
additional type of childhood abuse experienced more than doubled a 
youth’s odds of meeting the criteria for PTSD. Findings suggest the 
need for screening and providing trauma-informed services for homeless youth.

Heerde, J. A., Scholes-Balog, K. E., & Hemphill, S. A. (2015). Associations 
between youth homelessness, sexual offenses, sexual victimization, and sexual 
risk behaviors: A systematic literature review. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 
44(1), 181–212. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0375-2 

This literature review of 38 studies investigated the relationships 
between high-risk sexual behavior, sexual victimization (including 
commercial sexual exploitation), sexual violence perpetration, and 
homelessness among adolescents and young adults. It found that sexual 
victimization estimates vary greatly among different studies. Estimates 
of sexual assault ranged from 15-30%, estimates of rape from 11-43%, 
and estimates of engaging in street prostitution from 3-46%. These wide 
ranges may be the result of different measures of homelessness and sexual 
violence in each study. Results also indicate that sexual violence 
against homeless youth and sexual risk-taking among homeless youth is 
under-researched. No studies analyzed correlations between homelessness 
and sexual violence perpetration among homeless youth.

Heerde, J. A., & Hemphill, S. A. (2016). Sexual risk behaviors, sexual 
offenses, and sexual victimization among homeless youth: A systematic 
review of associations with substance use. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 17(5), 
468–489. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838015584371

This meta-analysis of 23 studies on substance use by homeless youth 
and the relationship between sexual offenses, sexual risk behavior, 
and sexual victimization found that alcohol, marijuana, and stimulants 
were the most commonly used substances by homeless youth. Findings 
from the reviewed studies generally showed substance use by homeless 
youth was associated with sexual risk behavior or sexual victimization. 
It is unclear if substance use came before or after engaging in risky 
sexual behaviors or experiencing sexual victimization. The results 
from this review support research indicating homeless youth experience 
various forms of sexual victimization.

Heerde, J. A., & Hemphill, S. A. (2017). The role of risk and protective 
factors in the modification of risk for sexual victimization, sexual risk 
behaviors, and survival sex among homeless youth: A meta-analysis. 
Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 14(2), 
150–174. https://doi.org/10.1002/jip.1473

This study is a meta-analysis of eighteen studies examining sexual 
victimization, sexual risk behavior, and survival sex. Authors found 
the following were risk factors that increase the likelihood of 
experiencing sexual violence, engaging in sexual risk behaviors, or 
engaging in survival sex: substance use, exposure to violence and crime 
(both as victims and perpetrators of violence), childhood abuse, sexual 
behavior, and peer anti-social and sexual behavior. Protective factors 
included peer and family social support — youth who reported having 
social support at home reduced their odds of experiencing sexual 
victimization by half. Protective factors reduced engagement in survival 
sex by two thirds. Findings suggest that risk and protective factors 
are important considerations to provide early intervention strategies 
for youth who are experiencing homelessness.

Melander, L. A., & Tyler, K. A. (2010). The effect of early maltreatment, 
victimization, and partner violence on HIV risk behavior among homeless 
young adults. Journal of Adolescent Health, 47(6), 575–581. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.04.010

This study examined the relationship between child maltreatment, 
physical and sexual victimization, and intimate partner violence 
with HIV risk behaviors. Data from the Homeless Young Adult Project 
(HYAP) was used, which included data from 172 young people aged 19-26 
years old who were experiencing homelessness or who had a history of 
running away and being homeless. The study found that sexual abuse was 
directly linked with street sexual victimization. Street sexual 
victimization was associated with a greater number of HIV risk behaviors 
(unprotected sex, IV drug use, and/or ever having an STD/STI). Young 
people who experienced multiple forms of violence also experienced more 
forms of sexual and physical victimization. 

Murphy, L. T. (2016). Labor and sex trafficking among homeless youth: 
A ten-city study — Executive summary. Loyola University. 
https://www.covenanthouse.org/sites/default/files/inline-files/Loyola
%20Multi-City%20Executive%20Summary%20FINAL.pdf

This study researched the prevalence of human trafficking of runaway 
and homeless youth aged 17-25. Six hundred and forty one youth receiving 
services through Covenant House’s network of shelters, transitional 
living, apartment programs, and drop-in centers were asked about their 
experiences of both labor and sexual exploitation. Youth were 
interviewed in ten cities across the United States and Canada. Nearly one 
in five interviewed youth were identified as victims of some form of 
human trafficking. Fourteen percent (92) were victims of sex trafficking, 
and 42% of them were minors involved in the sale of commercial sex and 
survival sex. Twenty-four percent of LGBTQ youth were trafficked for 
sex as compared to 12% of non-LGBTQ youth. Youth who had a history of 
involvement in the foster care system accounted for 29% of all sex 
trafficking victims and 27% of youth who engaged in the sex trade. 
Authors provide practical recommendations for prevention and intervention 
in serving homeless youth.

Petering, R., Rice, E., Rhoades, H., & Winetrobe, H. (2014). The social 
networks of homeless youth experiencing intimate partner violence. 
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29(12), 2172–2191. 
https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260513516864

This study examines the intimate partner violence (IPV) experiences of 
youth who are homeless. In a study of 386 homeless youth in Los Angeles, 
CA, one fifth of the respondents experienced IPV in the past year. 
Forty-four percent of participants experienced physical abuse by a 
family member as a child, 39% witnessed family violence, and more 
than one quarter experienced some form of childhood sexual abuse. 
Researchers found one quarter of homeless youth in this sample had 
experienced violence from an intimate partner. Female respondents who 
experienced IPV identified as having more friends in their network 
than those who did not report experiencing IPV. They also found that 
young women who experienced IPV had more male friends than young women 
who did not experience IPV. Researchers also found that young female 
homeless youth who witnessed family violence in childhood had more male 
friends, but those who experienced childhood sexual abuse had fewer 
overall friends and fewer male friends. Researchers suggest that having 
more male friends in their social network may increase the likelihood of 
experiencing victimization. Male homeless youth showed very different 
networks of friendships from female youth. This research shows that the 
IPV experiences of homeless youth is an issue and needs to be addressed.

Roe-Sepowitz, D., Brockie, M., Bracy, K., & Hogan, K. (2016). Youth experiences 
survey: Year three: Exploring the sex trafficking experiences of homeless youth 
adults in Arizona. Arizona State University School of Social Work. 
https://socialwork.asu.edu/sites/default/files/2016_yes_study_full_report.pdf

This report details the results from the Youth Experiences Survey (YES), 
which researchers give to homeless young adults in Phoenix and Tucson, Arizona. 
Of the 199 respondents,  33.2% indicated being sex trafficked, and 23.6% 
indicated experiencing sexual abuse. This study found that homeless young 
adults who had experienced sex trafficking are at an increased risk to have 
drug and alcohol problems. They are also more likely to have experienced 
abuse in childhood, to experience abuse in dating relationships, and to 
experience serious mental health challenges as compared to those who have 
not experienced sex trafficking.

Santa Maria, D. M., Breeden, K., Drake, S. A., Narendorf, S. C., Barman-
Adhikari, A., Petering, R., Hus, H., Shelton, J., Ferguson-Colvin, K., & 
Bender, K. (2020). Gaps in sexual assault health care among homeless young 
adults. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 58(2), 191-198. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2019.09.023

This study of 1,405 youth aged 18-26 looked at the gaps in sexual assault 
health care among homeless young adults. Twenty-three percent of the 
participants had engaged in the sex trade, 32% experienced sexual 
assault as a minor, and 39% experienced sexual exploitation. Twenty-four 
percent of the young adults reported experiencing forced sex. Of those, 
only 29% received a post-sexual assault examination. Of the youth who did 
not receive an exam (71%), the most frequently reported reasons were 
because they did not want to involve the legal system (44%) and they did 
not think it was important (35%). Researchers found that youth who experienced 
dating violence (58.3%), those who had been involved in the juvenile 
justice system (35.3%), or those who engaged in trading sex (52.7%) were 
significantly more likely to indicate they did not want to involve the legal 
system. Almost two thirds of youth who were forced to have sex did not get 
the medical care needed, representing a large gap in health care services for 
homeless youth. The authors highlight the need for targeted programs to address 
these barriers to ensure access to services and for post-assault medical care 
to be incorporated into sexual health programs serving youth experiencing homelessness.

Tyler, K. A., & Beal, M. R. (2010). The high-risk environment of homeless young 
adults: Consequences for physical and sexual victimization. Violence and Victims, 
25(1), 101–115. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.25.1.101 

This study used data from the Homeless Young Adult Project (HYAP), a pilot study 
on the effect of neglect and abuse history on homeless young adults’ mental health 
and high risk behaviors. Interviews of 127 homeless (36 women and 91 men) 
young adults (19-26 years old) were used for this study. The average age youth 
ran away was 14.5 years old, and most ran away two or three times. Sixteen 
percent of youth reported selling sex, and 32% reported having friends who did. 
Most of the respondents (94%) had experienced some type of physical victimization 
since being homeless, and 32% had experienced sexual victimization at least 
once. The study found that people who identify as women,  identify as part 
of a sexual minority, have an "unkempt" physical appearance, panhandle, 
and have friends who trade sex are more likely to experience sexual victimization.

Tyler, K. A., & Schmitz, R. M. (2018). Bullying at school and on the street: 
Risk factors and outcomes among homeless youth. Journal of Interpersonal 
Violence. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518794024

In this study, 150 homeless youth aged 16 - 22 were interviewed on their 
experiences of homelessness and bullying. The study found that lesbian, 
gay, and bisexual (LGB) youth experienced more frequent bullying at school.  
Youth who experienced more child abuse prior to leaving home were more 
likely to experience more bullying at school and on the street. 
Eighty-five percent of the young people reported being physically 
victimized at least once, and 32% experienced at least one type of 
sexual victimization since being on the street. Youth who have experienced
 sexual victimization while homeless were more likely to also experience 
frequent bullying, more likely to be female, and likely to have experienced 
more child sexual abuse than those who did not experience sexual victimization 
while homeless.

yler, K. A., Gervais, S. J., & Davidson, M. M. (2013). The relationship 
between victimization and substance use among homeless and runaway female 
adolescents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28(3), 474–493. 
https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260512455517

This study examined the connections between homelessness, sexual victimization, 
transactional sex, and substance use among homeless female youth. In a 
Social Network and Homeless Youth Project study of 137 homeless and runaway 
adolescent girls ages 14-21, 51% had been physically abused, 43% reported 
experiencing sexual abuse, and one fifth reported engaging in transactional sex. 
Victims of sexual abuse were more likely to have ever traded sex and to have 
experienced street sexual victimization. Older girls, those who had run away 
from home at an younger age, and those who had experienced sexual abuse were 
significantly more likely to have traded sex. Researchers also found that the 
longer youth were away from home, the more likely they were to experience more 
types of sexual victimization. Sexual abuse and sex trading were also correlated 
with more frequent marijuana and alcohol use.

Tyler, K. A., & Melander, L. A. (2010). Foster care placement, poor parenting, 
and negative outcomes among homeless young adults. Journal of Child and Family 
Studies, 19(6), 787–794. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-010-9370-y

This study compared 172 homeless youth with and without a history of foster 
care placement.  Results indicate that abuse and inadequate parenting are linked 
to many negative outcomes for youth who were in foster care and youth not in 
foster care. Researchers found that among youth who were in foster care, those 
who had a history of physical abuse and neglect were more likely to experience 
depressive symptoms, and those who experienced sexual abuse and neglect were 
more likely to experience delinquency and physical victimization. Among youth 
without a history of foster care, physical abuse was related to more depressive 
symptoms, and sexual abuse was related with delinquency, sexual victimization, 
and substance abuse.

Warf, C. W., Clark, L. F., Desai, M., Rabinovitz, S. J., Agahi, G., Calvo, R., 
& Hoffmann, J. (2013). Coming of age on the streets: Survival sex among homeless 
young women in Hollywood. Journal of Adolescence, 36(6), 1205–1213. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.08.013

Sixty young women (ages 18-24) experiencing homelessness in the East 
Hollywood area of Los Angeles, CA, were recruited to participate in a survey
 on their experiences of childhood physical and sexual abuse and involvement 
in dependency or delinquency systems, psychiatric hospitalization, and suicide 
attempts. Young women who are homeless were found to have a high rate of 
experiencing childhood sexual abuse, be involved in dependency and delinquency 
systems, and have been hospitalized in a psychiatric hospital. Young women who 
engaged in survival sex disclosed higher rates of attempted suicide and higher 
rates of childhood physical abuse. Most young women involved in survival sex 
did so to meet basic needs such as a place to stay, food, and money.

Wolfe, D. S., Greeson, J. K. P., Wasch, S., & Treglia, D. (2018). Human 
trafficking prevalence and child welfare risk factors among homeless youth: 
A multi-city study. Covenant House International.
https://www.covenanthouse.org/sites/default/files/inline-files/Field%20Center
%20Full%20Report%20on%20Human%20Trafficking%20Prevalence.pdf

This study examined human trafficking among homeless youth by interviewing 270 
homeless youth in three cities. Of those interviewed, 20% were victims of human 
trafficking and 17% were victims of sex trafficking. Among those homeless youth 
who were approached for paid sex, 22% were approached on their first night of 
homelessness; additionally, 14% engaged in survival sex to meet their basic 
needs, and 36% reported engaging in a commercial sex act at some point in their 
lives. Ninety-five percent of those who reported they were victims of sex 
trafficking had a history of child maltreatment (49% had experienced sexual 
abuse, and 33% had experienced physical abuse). Of those who were sex trafficked, 
63% reported involvement with the child welfare system. LGBTQ youth reported more 
sex trafficking than non-LGBTQ youth. Finally, the study revealed that protective 
factors against sex trafficking include having supportive parents or family members 
and graduating from high school. 

This project was supported by Grant No. 2018-TA-AX-K027 awarded by the Office on 
Violence Against Women, U.S. Department of Justice. The opinions, findings, 
conclusions, and recommendations expressed in this publication are those of 
the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Department of 
Justice, Office on Violence Against Women.

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